Seminars in Diagnostic Pathology
Volume 26, Issue 1 , Pages 10-17 , February 2009

Cocaine: history, social implications, and toxicity: a review

  • Rachel A. Goldstein, MSc, DO, FACOI

      Affiliations

    • Holy Cross Hospital, Northwestern Memorial Hospital, Chicago, Illinois
    • Corresponding Author InformationAddress reprint requests and correspondence: Rachel A. Goldstein, MSc, DO, FACOI, 1628 N. Bosworth #1, Chicago IL 60622
  • ,
  • Carol DesLauriers, PharmD

      Affiliations

    • Illinois Poison Center, Chicago, Illinois
  • ,
  • Anthony Burda, ABAT

      Affiliations

    • Illinois Poison Center, Chicago, Illinois
  • ,
  • Kelly Johnson-Arbor, MD

      Affiliations

    • University of Connecticut Health Center/Hartford Hospital, Hartford, Connecticut

References 

  1. Altman AJ, Albert DM, Fournier GA. Cocaine's use in ophthalmology: our 100 year heritage. Surv Ophthalmol. 1985;29:300–307
  2. Gay GR, Inaba DS, Sheperd CW, Newmyer JA. Cocaine: history, epidemiology, human pharmacology and treatment (A perspective on a new debut for an old girl). Clin Toxicol. 1975;8:149–178
  3. Piek J, Lidke G, Terberger TH. Ancient trephinations in neolithic people: evidence for Stone Age neurosurgery? (Nature Precedings: hdl: 10101/npre. 2008.1615.1). Posted 21 Feb 2008;
  4. Monardes N. Joyfull Newes out of the Newe Founde Worlde. New York, NY: Alfred Knopf; 1925;
  5. May CD: How Coca-Cola obtains its coca. The New York Times, July 1, 1998. Accessed December 4, 2007
  6. Benson D: Coca kick in drinks spurs export fears. The Washington Times, April 20, 2004. Accessed April 16, 2004. The legal importation of coca leaf. Accessed February 11, 2007
  7. The Consumers Union Report on Licit and Illicit Drugs by Edward M. Brecher and the Editors of Consumer Reports Magazine, 1972. Public Law No. 223, 63rd Cong., approved December 17, 1914
  8. Jatlow P. Cocaethylene: pharmacologic activity and clinical significance. Ther Drug Monit. 1993;15:533–536
  9. McCance EF, Price LH, Kosten TR, et al. Cocaethylene: pharmacology, physiology and behavioral effects in humans. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1995;274:215–223
  10. Boghdadi MS, Henning RJ. Cocaine: pathophysiology and clinical toxicology. Heart Lung. 1997;26:466–483
  11. Shannon M. Clinical toxicity of cocaine adulterants. Ann Emerg Med. 1988;17:1243–1247
  12. McKinney CD, Postiglione KF, Herold DA. Benzocaine-adulterated street cocaine in association with methemoglobinemia. Clin Chem. 1992;38:596–597
  13. Prasad RS, Kodali VR, Kuraijam GS, et al. Acute confusion and blindness from quinine toxicity. Eur J Emerg Med. 2003;10:353–356
  14. Wood DM, Webster E, Martinez D, et al. Case report: survival after deliberate strychnine self-poisoning, with toxicokinetic data. Crit Care. 2002;6:456–459
  15. O'Callaghan WG, Joyce N, Counihan HE. Unusual strychnine poisoning and its treatment: report of eight cases. Br Med J. 1982;285:478
  16. Ursitti F, Klein J, Koren G. Confirmation of cocaine use during pregnancy: a critical review. Ther Drug Monit. 2001;23:347–353
  17. Warner EA. Cocaine abuse. Ann Intern Med. 1993;119:226–235
  18. Burke WM, Ravi NV, Dhopesh V, et al. Prolonged presence of metabolite in urine after compulsive cocaine use. J Clin Psychiatry. 1990;51:145–148
  19. Weiss RD, Gawin FH. Protracted elimination of cocaine metabolites in long-term, high-dose cocaine abusers. Am J Med. 1988;85:879–880
  20. Baselt RC, Baselt DR. Little cross-reactivity of local anesthetics with Abuscreen (EMIT d.a.u., and TDX immunoassays for cocaine metabolite (letter)). Clin Chem. 1987;33:747
  21. Mazor SS, Mycyk MB, Wills BK, et al. Coca tea consumption causes positive urine cocaine assay. Eur J Emerg Med. 2006;13:340–341
  22. Mikkelsen SL, Ash KO. Adulterants causing false negatives in illicit drug testing. Clin Chem. 1988;34:2233–2236
  23. Stephens BG, Jentzen JM, Karch S, et al. Criteria for the interpretation of cocaine levels in human biological samples and their relation to the cause of death. Am J Forensic Med Pathol. 2004;25:1–10
  24. Karch SB. Introduction to the forensic pathology of cocaine. Am J Forensic Med Pathol. 1991;12:126–131
  25. Gruszecki AC, Robinson CA, Embry JH, et al. Correlation of the incidence of cocaine and cocaethylene in hair and postmortem biologic samples. Am J Forensic Med Pathol. 2000;21:166–171
  26. Koren G, Klein J, Forman R, et al. Hair analysis of cocaine: differentiation between systemic exposure and external contamination. J Clin Pharmacol. 1992;32:671–675
  27. Roldan CJ. Toxicity, cocaine. http://www.emedicine.com/med/topic 400.htmAccessed June 1, 2008
  28. Catterall WA, Mackie K. Local anesthetics. In:  Brunton LJ,  Parker KL,  Buxton I, et al. editor. Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. (ed 11). New York, NY: McGraw Hill; 2006;
  29. Shanti CM, Lucas CE. Cocaine and the critical care challenge. Crit Care Med. 2003;31:1851–1859
  30. Knuepfer M. Cardiovascular disorders associated with cocaine use: myths and truths. Pharmacol Ther. 2003;97:181–222
  31. Hoffman RS. Cocaine. In:  Flomenbaum NE,  Goldfrank LR,  Hoffman RS, et al. editor. Goldfrank's Toxicologic Emergencies. (ed 8). New York, NY: McGraw Hill; 2006;p. 1133–1146
  32. Lason W. Neurochemical and pharmacological aspects of cocaine-induced seizures. Pol J Pharmacol. 2001;53:57–60
  33. O'Dell L, George FR, Ritz MC. Antidepressant drugs appear to enhance cocaine-induced toxicity. Exp Clin Psychpharmacol. 2000;8:133–141
  34. Liu D, Hariman RJ, Bauman JL. Cocaine concentration-effect relationship in the presence and absence of lidocaine: evidence of competitive binding between cocaine and lidocaine. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1996;276:568–577
  35. McCord J, Hani J, Hollander JE. Management of cocaine-associated chest pain and myocardial infarction: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association acute cardiac care committee of the council on clinical cardiology. Circulation. 2008;117:1897–1907
  36. Tella SR, Schindler CW, Goldberg SR. Cocaine: cardiovascular effects in relation to inhibition of peripheral neuronal monoamine uptake and central stimulation of the sympathoadrenal system. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1993;267:153–162
  37. Jeffcoat A, Perez-Reyes M, Hill J, et al. Cocaine disposition in humans after intravenous injection, nasal insufflation (snorting), or smoking. Drug Metab Dispos. 1989;17:153–159
  38. Klasco RK (ed): Cocaine. POISINDEX® System. Greenwood Village, CO, Thomson Healthcare (edition expires 9/2008)
  39. Leikin J, Paloucek F. Cocaine. In: Poisoning and Toxicology Handbook. (ed 4). Informa Health Care: CRC Press; 2008;p. 13
  40. Baslet R. Cocaine. In: Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man. (ed 6). Foster City, CA: Biomedical Publications; 2002;p. 247–253
  41. Hoffman RS. Cocaine. In:  Flomenbaum NE,  Goldfrank LR,  Hoffman RS, et al. editor. Goldfrank's Toxicologic Emergencies. (ed 8). New York, NY: McGraw Hill; 2006;p. 1133–1146
  42. Maurer H, Sauer C, Theobald D. Toxicokinetics of drugs of abuse: current knowledge of the isoenzymes involved in the human metabolism of tetrahydrocannabinol, cocaine, heroin, morphine, and codeine. Drug Monit. 2006;28:447–453
  43. Kolbrich E, Barnes A, Gorelick D, et al. Major and minor metabolites of cocaine in human plasma following controlled subcutaneous cocaine administration. J Anal Toxicol. 2006;30:501–511
  44. Huestis M, Darwin W, Shimomura E, et al. Cocaine and metabolites urinary excretion after controlled smoked administration. J Anal Toxicol. 2007;21:462–468
  45. Cone E, Tsadic A, Oyler H, Darwin W. Cocaine metabolism and urinary excretion after different routes of administration. Proceedings of the Fifth International Congress of Therapeutic Drug Monitoring and Clinical Toxicology. 1998;20:556–560
  46. Jufer R, Walsh S, Cone E, Smapson-Cone A. Effect of repeated cocaine administration on detection times in oral fluid and urine. J Anal Toxicol. 2006;30:458–462

 This article contains text, figures, and a table adapted with permission from: Goldstein RA, DesLauriers C, Burda A: Cocaine: history, social implication, and toxicity—a review. Dis Mon 55:6-38, 2009.

PII: S0740-2570(08)00112-3

doi: 10.1053/j.semdp.2008.12.001

Seminars in Diagnostic Pathology
Volume 26, Issue 1 , Pages 10-17 , February 2009